Internation Recruitment and Selection Essay Example for Free

Internation Recruitment and Selection Essay The world has been rapidly transforming due to the changes in technology, innovations, and the reduction of trade barriers into and out of countries which have permitted globalization. Due to globalization human resource management has been forced to take a more international approach, and has demonstrated that a more effective management of human resources internationally is imperative for the success of companies in international business (Shen). Therefore international organizations need to understand the roll that plays the international human resource management (IHRM) department, and the importance of adopting an effective recruiting, selecting, and training strategies that will enable the company to select the right talent for the right places. IHRM plays a very important and challenging roll in the international setting of organizations because â€Å"they must develop practices which will maintain congruence with the overall strategic plan of their respective multinational corporations, while balancing the economic, social, political, and legal constraints of the host countries† (Caligiuri). Companies understand that the only way to develop strong and successful global leaders, which are keys to competitive advantage, is through an IHRM department that has a well develop competitive strategy in place. Multinational Corporations (MNCs) like Unilever and Huawei Technologies Co., a Chinese networking and telecommunications supplier, have understood the importance of a well develop IHRM department and have implemented strategies that are aligned with a global approach that support the business operation worldwide (Gartsdie). Based on Heenan and Perlmutter model there are four competitive strategies as well as different training alternatives for global assignees that MNCs can use to develop a successful IHRM approach. The recruitment and selection (staffing) policies which MNCs implement for their foreign subsidiaries will vary greatly for every company, and should be determine accordingly with the IHRM approach the organization is pursuing (Ball). MNCs can be divided in four types based on their management approach and corporate philosophy. The first approach a MNC may consider is the ethnocentric approach which is â€Å"characterized by low pressures for cost reduction and low pressures for local responsiveness† (Ball). Ethnocentric MNCs are not willing to give up the control over foreign subsidiaries, and prefer to place expatriates employees belonging to the home country of the firm, in all key management positions abroad. IHRMs departments that adopt this approach believe that expatriates are more capable than employees of the host country, and they expect that their expatriate managers transfer headquarters’ culture and philosophy to the host nationals (Caligiuri). This approach is normally used by MNCs with primarily international strategic orientations in the early stages of globalization. The advantage of an ethnocentric approach is that it expands the experience of expatriates and prepares them for high level management positions who execute strategic decisions from headquarters. Many expatriates adapt, learn the language, and perform effectively within the host country (Ball). However data suggest that there is a high turnover rate among expatriates because many of them do not have the special set of skills, characteristics, and abilities (e.g. tolerance of ambiguity, adjust quickly, empathy, actively manage social contacts) that are required to be successful in such position (Caligiuri). Because of the previous statement it is imperative that MNCs understand that facilitating proper training and development to the expatriate is a very important part of the IHRM department because it has a major impact on the effectiveness of the expatriate manager and â€Å"research has shown that cross-cultural training is an effective intervention to prevent expatriate failures† (Deller). However MNCs today face a big problem because studies show that only fifty percent of all expatriates receive adequate training (Deller). Another very important aspect to the IHRM department needs to consider when selecting the right candidate under this approach is to keep in mind the impact in the family of the expatriate. The family’s willingness and ability to adjust is of crucial importance for the assignee’s employer and it needs to be address during the staffing process as well. Another disadvantage for this approach is that is more costly for the corporation because it has to offer more incentives to the expatriate (Deller). In the selection process it is the responsibility of the IHRM department to evaluate the efficiency and cross-cultural proficiency of the candidates to ensure the success of this approach. The polycentric staffing policy is a second approach that can be implemented by IHRM departments of MNCs. Under this approach the human resource department will look for host country nationals (HNC) to manage subsidiaries in their own country with some coordination form headquarters (Ball). With this approach IHRM departments do not need to worry about looking for certain skills or characteristics for an international setting because the candidates are employed at the subsidiary level and they do not have language and culture barriers, labor turnover reduces, productivity increase, there are ideal information of industry, legal and political configuration, and the first cost of employing them is less expensive. Also using this approach makes the subsidiary looks less foreign (Caligiuri). However the problem with hiring HCNs is that they are not familiar with the home country of the international company and with its corporate culture, policies, and practices (Ball). The underlying crisis in communication and control between the headquarters and the subsidiary due to language barriers, conflicting national loyalties and differences in personal values may create an inconsistency in the strategic management process that will result in the subsidiary operating as a separate unit. Home country national’s lack of exposure to international assignments and lack of career mobility among HCNs are also some disadvantages of this approach and ultimately will affect the competitive advantage of the MNC (Padala). According to the article of Jie Shein, â€Å"HCNs are included in management development schemes only at the subsidiary level and HCN managers are rarely promoted to senior management positions† (663). When staffing under this approach IHRM departments can choose from hiring HCNs in the home country or HCNs in the host country. Many MNCs have experienced difficulties in hiring high caliber of HCNs managers because of the lack of long-term IHRM planning and training and ineffective international management development (Shen). When the polycentric staffing approach is not adequate the regiocentric staffing approach might be a better option. The regiocentric staffing approach can be used for companies with a regional strategic approach. In this approach employees are selected for key positions within the region the subsidiary is operating, employing a variety of HCNs and third country nationals, TCNs (Ball). From this perspective the communication and integration systems must be highly sophisticated for headquarters to maintain control over the regions however the host national are given the opportunity to manage their own subsidiaries. The likelihood of HNCs career advancement is greater within the region, but still limited in headquarters (Caligiuri). The training and development for this approach are the same as with the polycentric staffing approach. One of the biggest advantages of this approach is that it serves as a bridge for MNCs to gradually move to a geocentric staffing approach. The geocentric staffing approach is used in companies with a transnational strategic orientation. This staffing approach seeks the best people for key jobs throughout the organization, regardless of nationality, selecting the best person for the job, irrespective of nationality is most consistent with the underlying philosophy of a global corporation (Padala). This approach is ideal because the human resource strategy will be the same across all subsidiaries, using the best practices from wherever they might be found across the MNC worldwide networking of operations (Ball). However one of the drawbacks of this approach is that it can be expensive to implement because of increased training, compensations packages, and relocations costs, and it could require longer lead time (Padala). IHRM staffing approaches are very important but training and development also play a very important role in the international setting. International training and development is one of IHRM’s most crucial activities. While it is true that MNCs recognize the significance of international training and development for their employees there is knowledge that this corporation’s training strategies are weak and not effective. Current researches show that today the majority of companies have ineffective training and management policies that have resulted in frequently employee failure (Shen). In order to succeed in the global arena MNCs need to implement an effective international training and development program for expatriates, HCNs, and TCNs. Globalization has definitely created a very competitive business market in which international human resource management plays a crucial role for the success on multinational corporations. It is imperative that corporation carefully analyze every staffing approach available and implement the one that will help them select the right candidates for the right position, and provide the candidates with the appropriate training and development in order to create a competitive advantage. Works Cited Ball, A. Don, et al. International Business: The Challenge of Global Competition. 13th. New York: McGraw-Hill. Print. Caligiuri, Paula M., Linda K. Stroh. Multinational corporation strategies and international human resources practices: bringing IHRM to the bottom line. The International Journal of Human Resource Management 6:3 September 1995. P.494-498. http://chrs.rutgers.edu/pub_documents/Paula_14.pdf Deller, Juergen. International Human Resource Management And the Formation of Cross-Cultural Competence. Institute of Business Psychology, University of Lueneburg, Germany. International Management Review. Vol.2 No. 3. 2006. http://www.usimr.org/IMR-3-2006/International%20Human%20Resource%20Management%20and%20the%20Formation%20of%20Cross-Cultural%20Competence.pdf Gartside, David, Griccioli, Stefano, and Rustin Richburg. Different stokes: How to manage a global workforce. Issue No.2. 2011. Outlook. Accenture. http://www.accenture.com/SiteCollectionDocuments/PDF/Accenture-Outlook-How-to-Manage-a-Global-Workforce.pdf. Padala, Shanmukha Rao Dr.; Dr. N.V.S. Suryanarayana. Approaches to International Human Resource Management. September 11, 2012. Articlebase.com. http://www.articlesbase.com/international-business-articles/approaches-to-international-human-resource-manageme nt-3249167.html. Shen, Jie. International training and management development: theory and reality. Journal of Management Development. Vol 24 No. 7, 2005. November 2, 2012. http://people.math.sfu.ca/~van/diverse/bellut-papers/test-9.pdf

Treatment of Women in Homers Odyssey :: Homer Odyssey womody

The Treatment of Women in Homer's Odyssey Judged by modern Western standards, the treatment of women by men in Homer's Odyssey can be characterized as sexist. Women in Homer's Odyssey are judged mainly by their looks. If important men and gods consider a woman beautiful, or if her son or husband is a hero or has an important position such as king, the woman is successful. The way women in The Odyssey are treated is based on appearance, the things men want from them, and whether the woman has any power over men. During Odysseus' journey to the underworld he sees many different types of women. We hear about their beauty, their important sons, or their affairs with gods. We hear nothing about these women's accomplishments in their lifetime. Odysseus tells how Antiope could "boast a god for a lover,"(193) as could Tyro and many other women. Epikaste was called "that prize"(195) her own son unwittingly married. Some women are known for the deeds of their sons or husbands, but never for a heroic deed of their own, their personalities, and what they do themselves. It seems the only accomplishment women could achieve was being beautiful. Theseus "had no joy of"(195) the princess Ariadne because she died before this was possible. Homer makes it sound as if Ariadne's life was useless because she did not give Theseus pleasure. The only woman we hear of for a different reason is Klymene, and we only hear of her because she "betrayed her lord for gold."(195) This is the only time we hear of a woman for something she did, and once we do, it is a negative remark. Penelope, Odysseus' queen, is paid attention to only because of her position. Because she has a kingdom, she has suitors crowding around her day and night. Being a woman, Penelope has no control over what the suitors do and cannot get rid of them. The suitors want her wealth and her kingdom. They do not respect her enough to stop feeding on Odysseus' wealth; they feel she owes them something because she won't marry one of them. One of the suitors, Antinoos, tells Telemakhos "...but you should know the suitors are not to blame- it is your own incomparably cunning mother."(21) Even Telemakhos doesn't respect his mother as he should. When the song of a minstrel makes her sad and Penelope requests him to stop playing, Telemakhos interrupts and says to her, "Mother, why do you grudge our own dear minstrel joy of song, wherever his thought may lead.

College Admissions Essay: My Private Vietnam :: Free College Admissions Essays

My private Vietnam is a never-ending identity conflict. Part of me is American, part of me is Vietnamese. I have Asian features, but I'm tall and broad-shouldered. I don't feel accepted in either culture. Â   Vietnam is bittersweet for me. Without the war, I wouldn't have been born. Without the American soldiers there, I wouldn't be Amerasian and living in the United States. The bitter part is that I will never find out who my father is. I don't have his name or Social Security number. I wish I had a real family to come home to during the holidays. Â   Veterans look at me like I'm a ghost. They associate me with the sons they might have fathered and deserted in Vietnam. Every summer I attend a writers' conference in Boston that includes some men who were in Vietnam. I look into their eyes and they look into mine. For me, it's looking into the eyes of potential fathers or father figures.

Supply and Demand and Larger Societal Forces

â€Å"The microenvironment consists of the actors close to the company that affect its ability to serve its customers – the company, suppliers, marketing intermediates, customer markets, competitors and publics. The macroenvironment consists of the larger societal forces that affect the microenvironment – demographic, economic, natural, technological, political and cultural forces. † (Kolter, 2008) We stated on this website that marketing was about meeting needs and providing benefits and the customer should be the central focus of the business.The companies marketing strategy should be focused around this concept, however, there are factors within the companies marketing environment which can constrain this activity. These factors are both controllable and uncontrollable and have to be carefully monitored by the organisation. The companies marketing environment can be defined as the ‘controllabe and uncontrollabe elements that influence the strategic direc tion of the company'. The companies marketing environment can be analysed in two broad levels.The macro environment involves looking at uncontrollabe variables that influence company strategy. This is is discussed further in PEST Analysis. Political Influences Relationships between coffee producing nations and US State & Local government controls Economic Influences Constant demand for food and beverages Changes in disposable income could influence purchase levels There is an importance of economic indicators to the strategic planning process in any organization is the ability to benchmark economic conditions that contribute to improve profitability, business growth and market size.Starbucks have succeeded several economic factors as well as price elasticity of demand. Price elasticity of demand can be determined by the percentage change in the quantity demanded with the percentage change in price. They should consider household income that people are willing to spend more on food a nd beverages when household income increases. Starbucks innovation in joint ventures has opened new markets and opportunities increasing product use among different demographics.Starbucks has proven to be highly innovative in business culture that offers prepaid cards, priced from ?5 to ?500. Joint ventures with Pepsi Company, Dreyer's Grand Ice Cream Inc and inspiring entertainment with the launch of â€Å"Hear Music† have developed Starbucks with great success. Starbucks has shown their values, leveraging market power, resources, and capabilities to achieve returns higher than their competition (Investment Group, 2001).

A Word on Wordsworth essays

A Word on Wordsworth essays Contrary to what many critics state, Wordsworth does capture the true essence of childhood. While reading Tintern Abbey and Ode: Intimations of Immorality, the reader is instantly aware that the point of view is from an adult who dreams of returning to the age when life had no worries. In the beginning lines of his Ode: Intimations of Immorality Wordsworth paints a picture which carries much similarity to Genesiss Garden of Eden. For example, throughout lines 1-2, Wordsworth talks of a serene setting with a meadow, grove, and stream. Then, he begins to further glorify his setting by mentioning that according to him it appareled in celestial light. In many ways this is childhood. Most children have no worries and their state of mind is not troubled or disturbed in any way, much like Wordsworths setting. Moreover, the way they see the world is not tarnished, as opposed to when they mature and the evils of the world begin to surface. Yet, the most important concept brought upon by Wordsworth is not only the idea of what being a child is or what it should be, but the constant yearning for an adult to return to his/her youth. By showing childhood as the only time when an individual can be truly carefree, Wordsworth creates a want in the reader to again experience life as it was-before maturity began to occur. In both poems, Wordsworth speaks of childhood as only a faint memory, which can never be duplicated in an adult life. For instance, in lines 83 and 84 of Tintern Abbey, Wordsworth writes that childhood is That time is past, and all its aching joys are now no more. Personally, I do not feel that Wordsworth exaggerates any part of what it means to be a child through the eyes of an adult-especially an adult whose life may prove troublesome. Though maturity heightens knowledge, I cannot say I dont miss the ignoran...

UAE Islands

UAE Islands Man-made islands in Dubai There are several residential projects that are now being implemented in Abu Dhabi and Dubai. First of all, one should speak about the construction of the Palm Islands and the World Islands in Dubai.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on UAE Islands specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More These projects were implemented in order to solve the problem of beach shortage in the city, beginning in 2003 (Badescu Cathcart 2011, p. 66). At that time, the coastline was not sufficient for construction industry. There was virtually no space that could be filled by office buildings, hotels, restaurants, and so forth. These islands are made of the sand that has been dredged from the bottom of the sea. To a great extent, these artificial islands were supposed to serve the needs of the real estate market which was booming in the UAE (Froelich, 2008, p. 430). It was supposed that the territory could be used fo r various residential projects such as the construction of restaurants, luxury hotels, shopping malls, villas, or sports facilities (Froelich, 2008, p. 430). The islands can be used by various businesses that intend to operate in Dubai. The availability of artificial islands can stimulate the growth of tourism in the UAE. At present, many of the construction projects on the Palm Islands have not been completed. However, there are many people who are willing to settle on the Palm Islands (Roza, 2009, p. 54). They prefer to move to Palm Jumeirah because it has the most developed infrastructure (Roza, 2009, p. 54). These are some of the details that can be identified, but there are several environmental problems that should not be overlooked. First of all, these projects can disrupt the functioning of many marine eco-systems. One should not forget about the erosion of the coastline (Roza, 2009, p. 54). These are the risks that are associated with land reclamation (Roza, 2009, p. 54). O verall, the construction of these artificial islands is one of the most ambitious development projects that are now carried out in the UAE, as more than $ 12 billion have already been spent.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More These artificial islands are constructed by the government that wants to stimulate the development of the real estate market in Dubai. The costs associated with these artificial islands can be justified if investors are willing to use the territory. In case the demand for this territory decreases, these artificial islands may become an extra burden for Dubai. These are the main details that can be identified. Masdar City Abu Dhabi has taken a different development approach which is a symbol of the city’s attempt to develop a sustainable and environmentally sensitive socio economic growth plan. It can be described as an arcology or a set of interrelated buildings and infrastructural facilities that can remain sustainable for a long time. Abu Dhabi’s government has instigated a Swiss Village, MASDAR City, an urban green space design, which is a new urban area designed from scratch that will only depend on renewable energy. The designers are using the sun, the desert’s greatest threat, as a great asset for renewable energy. The construction of this complex will require approximately $ 22 billion (Pollalis 2013, p. 253). There are several distinct elements of Masdar City. This arcology will rely primarily on renewable energy sources, and it will not be dependent on fuel or electricity produced in other parts of Abu Dhabi (Pollalis 2013, p. 253). Although Masdar is marketed as green over the top project, it is a way to get the message out into the open, and make people realize that they need to change the way the population thinks. It is not about advertising but about a new way of living and thinki ng. It is isolated, and if you do not fit in, you are not accepted. As for the man-made islands, environmental aspects have been ignored during the urban development process. Decision makers and planners must understand the relation between a built and a natural environment in order to enhance the urban characteristics in a sustainable manner, as these could trigger long-term environmental economic and social impacts (Gret-Regamey ET AL. 2008). It is expected that this artificial complex can provide accommodation to more than sixty thousand people who will be living and working there. This complex will be oriented for the needs of companies that will work on the development of sustainable technologies (Brebbia 2011, p. 37).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on UAE Islands specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Masdar City will also be used by research centers and educational organizations. The functioning of this arco logy will be based on the use of sustainable transportation such as E-taxis (Brebbia 2011, p. 37). The private vehicles of employees will not be used on the territory of Masdar City. Also, much attention will be paid to the recycling of waste that will be re-used (Smith 2012, p. 309). This project is carried out by a governmental organization, namely Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company. This organization intends to make Abu Dhabi more sustainable, especially at the time when natural resources are becoming scarce. This is the long-term objective that policy-makers want to attain. Additionally, the construction of this arcology can boost the growth of the real estate market in Abu Dhabi because it can attract many investors from different countries. People working in Masdar City may want to buy or rent apartments in other areas of Abu Dhabi and the demand for housing might eventually increase. Thus, the completion of this complex can have long-lasting implications for many people in Abu D habi. This city will be completed at the end of 2025 and it could be an important step in the development of the housing industry in the United Arab Emirates. It is possible that similar residential projects will be implemented in the country or neighboring states. References Badescu, V Cathcart, R 2011, Macro-engineering Seawater in Unique Environments: Arid Lowlands and Water Bodies Rehabilitation, Springer, New York. Brebbia, C 2011, Sustainable Development and Planning V, WIT Press, Boston. Froelich, B 2008, A Bull for All Seasons: Main Street Strategies for Finding the Money in Any Market, McGraw Hill Professional, New York.Advertising Looking for research paper on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Gret-Regamey et al. 2008, Ecosystem Services in Agricultural and Urban Landscapes, John Wiley Sons, Hoboken. Pollalis, S 2013, Infrastructure Sustainability and Design, Routledge, New York. Roza, G 2009, The Creation of Islands, The Rosen Publishing Group, New York. Smith, P 2012, City: A Guidebook for the Urban Age, Bloomsbury Publishing, London.

Toumai - Type site of Sahelanthropus tchadensis

Toumai - Type site of Sahelanthropus tchadensis Toumaà ¯ is the name of a late Miocene hominoid who lived in what is today the Djurab desert of Chad some seven million years ago (mya). The fossil currently classified as Sahelanthropus tchadensis is represented by a nearly complete, amazingly well-preserved cranium, collected from the Toros-Menalla locality of Chad by the Mission Palà ©oanthropologique Franco-Tchadienne (MPFT) team led by Michel Brunet. Its status as an ancient hominid ancestor is somewhat in debate; but Toumaà ¯s significance as the oldest and best preserved of any Miocene age ape is undeniable. Location and Features The Toros-Menalla fossil region is located in the Chad basin, a region that has fluctuated from semi-arid to wet conditions over and over again. The fossil-bearing outcrops are in the center of the northern sub-basin and consist of terrigenous sands and sandstones interbedded with argillaceous pebbles and diatomites. Toros-Menalla is some 150 kilometers (about 90 miles) east of the Koro-Toro locality where Australopithecus bahrelghazali was discovered by the MPFT team. Toumaà ¯s skull is small, with features suggesting it had an upright stance and used bipedal locomotion. Its age at death was approximately 11 years old, if comparisons to wear on the teeth of modern chimpanzees are valid: 11 years is an adult chimpanzee and it is assumed that so was Toumaà ¯. Toumaà ¯ has been dated to approximately 7 million years of age using the Beryllium isotope 10Be/9BE ratio, developed for the region and also used on the Koro-Toro fossil beds. Other examples of S. tchandensis were recovered from Toros-Menalla localities TM247 and TM292, but were limited to two lower jaws, the crown of a right premolar (p3), and one partial mandible fragment. All hominoid fossil materials were recovered from an anthracotheriid unitso called because it also contained a large anthracotheriid, Libycosaurus petrochii, an ancient hippopotamus-like creature. Toumaà ¯s Cranium The complete cranium recovered from Toumaà ¯ had suffered fracturing, displacement and plastic deformation over the past millennia, and in 2005, researchers Zollikofer et al. published a detailed virtual reconstruction of the skull. This reconstruction illustrated in the photo above used high-resolution computed tomography to create a digital representation of the pieces, and the digital pieces were cleaned of adhering matrix and reconstructed. The cranial volume of the reconstructed skull is between 360-370 milliliters (12-12.5 fluid ounces), similar to modern chimpanzees, and the smallest known for an adult hominid. The skull has a nuchal crest that is within the range of Australopithecus and Homo, but not chimpanzees. The skulls shape and line suggests Toumaà ¯ stood upright, but without additional postcranial artifacts, thats a hypothesis waiting to be tested. Faunal Assemblage Vertebrate fauna from TM266 include 10 taxa of freshwater fish, turtles, lizards, snakes and crocodiles, all representatives of ancient Lake Chad. Carnivores include three species of extinct hyenas and a saber toothed cat (Machairodus cf. M giganteus). Primates other than S. tchadensis are represented only by a single maxilla belonging to a colobine monkey. Rodents include mouse and squirrel; extinct forms of aardvarks, horses, pigs, cows, hippos and elephants were found in the same locality. Based on the collection of animals, the TM266 locality is likely to be Upper Miocene in age, between 6 and 7 million years ago. Clearly aquatic environments were available; some of the fish are from deep and well-oxygenated habitats, and other fish are from swampy, well-vegetated and turbid waters. Together with the mammals and vertebrates, that collection implies that the Toros-Menalla region included a large lake bordered by a gallery forest. This type of environment is typical for the most ancient of hominoids, such as Ororrin and Ardipithecus; in contrast, Australopithecus lived in a wider range of environments including everything from savannah to forested woodlands. Sources Brunet M, Guy F, Pilbeam D, Lieberman DE, Likius A, Mackaye HT, Ponce de Leà ³n MS, Zollikofer CPE, and Vignaud P. 2005. New material of the earliest hominid from the Upper Miocene of Chad. Nature 434:752-755.Brunet M. 2010. Short note: The track of a new cradle of mankind in Sahelo-Saharan Africa (Chad, Libya, Egypt, Cameroon). Journal of African Earth Sciences 58(4):680-683.Emonet E-G, Andossa L, Taà ¯sso Mackaye H, and Brunet M. 2014. Subocclusal dental morphology of sahelanthropus tchadensis and the evolution of teeth in hominins. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 153(1):116-123.Lebatard A-E, Bourlà ¨s DL, Duringer P, Jolivet M, Braucher R, Carcaillet J, Schuster M, Arnaud N, Monià © P, Lihoreau F et al. 2008. Cosmogenic nuclide dating of Sahelanthropus tchadensis and Australopithecus bahrelghazali: Mio-Pliocene hominids from Chad. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105(9):3226-3231.Vignaud P, Duringer P, Mackaye HT, Likius A, Blondel C, Boisserie J-R, de Bonis L, Eisenmann V, Etienne M-E, Geraads D et al. 2002. Geology and palaeontology of the Upper Miocene Toros-Menalla hominid locality, Chad. Nature 418:152-155. Wolpoff MH, Hawks J, Senut B, Pickford M, and Ahern JCM. 2006. An ape or the ape: is the Toumaà ¯ cranium TM 266 a hominid? PaleoAnthropology 2006:36-50.Zollikofer CPE, Ponce de Leà ³n MS, Lieberman DE, Guy F, Pilbeam D, Likius A, Mackaye HT, Vignaud P, and Brunet M. 2005. Virtual cranial reconstruction of Sahelanthropos tchadensis. Nature 434:755-759.